Scurvy: The Disease That Haunted Sailors

What Is Scurvy?

Scurvy is a disease caused by a deficiency of vitamin C (ascorbic acid).

It is characterised by swollen, bleeding gums, fatigue, poor wound healing, and the reopening of previously healed wounds.

The condition particularly affected poorly nourished sailors until the late 18th century, when an effective remedy was finally adopted at sea.

Symptoms of Scurvy

Scurvy typically develops after 60–90 days on a vitamin C–deficient diet.

Early Symptoms

The first signs are often subtle:

Fatigue and lethargy
Muscle aches (especially in the legs and abdomen)
Joint pain
Wounds that fail to heal properly

Progressive Symptoms

As the deficiency worsens:

Gums begin to swell, bleed, and feel tender
Breath becomes foul-smelling
Teeth loosen and may eventually fall out

Advanced Scurvy

In the later stages, symptoms can become severe:

Fever
Ulcers, particularly on the feet and legs
Gangrene in affected tissues
Spontaneous haemorrhaging

Without treatment, death often occurred due to internal bleeding in the brain or heart, sometimes triggered by even minor physical activity.

Remarkably, even in the advanced stages, a full recovery is possible if vitamin C is administered in time.

The History of Scurvy Through Time

Although commonly associated with sailors, scurvy has affected humans throughout history.

Most animals can convert glucose into vitamin C. However, humans, some primates, bats, and guinea pigs cannot. We lack the enzyme required for this conversion and must obtain vitamin C from dietary sources.

Scurvy likely became more common when humans adopted an agrarian lifestyle. Stored grains provided reliable winter calories but contained little to no vitamin C. Diets heavily reliant on stored grain led to seasonal deficiencies.

The earliest known written description of a disease believed to be scurvy appears in the Ebers Papyrus (1500 BC, Egypt), which recommended onions, a source of vitamin C, as a treatment.

Scurvy in the Age of Sail

Scurvy became especially devastating during the 16th century as naval technology advanced and voyages grew longer.

Ships could remain at sea for months. Fresh fruit and vegetables spoiled quickly, and once supplies ran out, sailors were left without adequate vitamin C.

As voyages progressed and fresh provisions disappeared, cases of scurvy increased dramatically.

The curative power of citrus fruits was already known in the 15th century. The Portuguese even planted fruit trees on Saint Helena, a key stopover for ships returning from the East.

However, poor communication and limited food preservation meant this life-saving knowledge was not consistently applied. Countless sailors died from what was, in reality, a preventable disease.

Dr James Lind and the Citrus Experiment

In 1739, Dr James Lind, a Scottish physician and Royal Navy surgeon, conducted one of the earliest recorded clinical trials.

He selected twelve sailors suffering from scurvy and divided them into six pairs. Each pair received a different supplement in addition to their standard rations:

Saltwater
CiderVinegar
Various other remedies
Citrus fruits

The pair given citrus fruits made a remarkable recovery.

Lind had demonstrated that citrus fruits were an effective cure for scurvy.

However, it took another 40 years before the Admiralty ordered all ships to carry lemon or lime juice. Once implemented, the incidence of scurvy in the Royal Navy dropped to virtually zero.

Foods High in Vitamin C

Today, scurvy is rare in developed countries because vitamin C is widely available in fresh produce.

A medium orange contains approximately 70 mg of vitamin C.

According to the NHS, adults need 40 mg per day, while US guidelines recommend 75–90 mg per day.

Here are several foods that contain even more vitamin C than an orange:

Chilli peppers – Half a cup: 107 mg
Red sweet peppers – One cup: 190 mg
Kale – One cup: 80 mg
Strawberries – One cup: 84 mg
Cauliflower – One small head: 127 mg

A balanced diet with regular fruit and vegetables easily prevents deficiency.

From Historic Voyages to Modern Sailing

Thankfully, scurvy is now largely a disease of the past, a reminder of how nutrition shaped maritime history.

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